Branches of facial nerve: Temporal, Zygomatic, Buccal, Mandibular, Cervical (Ten Zebras Bought My Car).....

Neurosurgery Image......

In this photo during neurosurgery, you can see the layers of the head removed & retracted until the brain is exposed.
First, you see the retraction of the scalp. Then you can see the top of the skull cap, or calvarium. After that you can see the dura mater of the meninges peeled back (the meninges is the protective covering over the brain & consists of the dura mater, arachnoid mater, & pia mater), finally revealing the cerebral cortex of the brain. You can even see the meningeal blood vessels.

Brain Lobe Anatomy.........

Brain Anatomy
The brain and the spinal cord form the central nervous system. Weighing approximately 1-1.5 kg, the brain acts like a computer system regulating many of our bodily processes, including basic functioning, such as respiration, temperature, appetite, movement and cognitive processes like thoughts, memory and emotion.
Protected within the skull, the brain is a symmetrically shaped structure which is divided into 2 hemispheres: the right and a left hemisphere. The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body; the right side of the brain controls the left side of the body.
The cerebral cortex makes up the surface of the brain; it is highly folded giving it a very large surface area. The cerebral cortex is divided into 4 sections: the occipital, parietal, temporal and frontal lobe. Although each lobe is specialised to control particular functions, all work together to control the body.

The Frontal Lobe

The frontal lobe contains four main areas:

• The primary motor cortex - involved in the initiation of voluntary movements, particularly in the execution of distinct, well-defined movements
• The premotor area - which plays a key role in the planning of motor activity and the initiation of voluntary movement by controlling the orientation of the body and its limbs
• The prefrontal cortex - which is implicated in social behaviour and personality
• Broca’s area – is part of the prefrontal cortex and is important in the production of written and spoken language

Parietal Lobe

This has 3 main functions:

• Bringing together information about our sense of touch and joint position
• Making sense of the relationship between objects in space
• Aspects of language comprehension

Temporal Lobe

The temporal lobe contains four key regions:

• The primary auditory cortex receives information from the ears and plays an important role in the detection of patterns of sound and the location of sound
• Wernicke’s area is important in the comprehension of language
• The medial temporal lobe is involved in learning and memory
• The anterior temporal cortex is believed to store facts about people and the world

The Occipital Lobe

This is mainly concerned with vision. The primary visual cortex contains a map of the visual field that receives information from the eyes and relays it to the visual association cortex. The visual association cortex contains around 30 further maps involved in processing information about form, depth, movement and color.

Brain Anatomy....Hippocampus

The amygdala, named in Latin after its likeness to an almond, is located in the brain just in front of the hippocampus.  This is ideal because the amygdala attaches emotional significance to memories, which the hippocampus processes.
While the amygdala is best known and understood for emotional reactions (I.E., rage), when bitemporally lesioned (damaged in both hemispheres), patients tend to not only present with docility, but also hypersexuality with unusual objects and an odd tendency to put objects in their mouths.  This is known as Kluver-Bucy Syndrome.

The Hippocampus

This plays an important role in memory, as demonstrated by the famous case of H.M, a 27 year old patient who was suffering from severe temporal lobe epilepsy. As treatment, doctors surgically removed a region of both his medial temporal lobes which included the hippocampus. The treatment was successful in stopping most of the seizures. However, H.M. experienced a disastrous side-effect from the surgery; he became unable to form new memories.
 Damage to the hippocampus can produce both anterograde and retrograde amnesia but will not affect other aspects of memory, such as the ability to learn new skills (procedural memory) or to store information about meaning and facts (semantic memory).
The hippocampus is also believed to play an important role in storing information about the environmental (spatial) context of events that have happened in the past. Damage to this region is associated with difficulties in navigating through familiar places.

The Amygdala

This is often referred to as the "emotional brain" as it is believed to regulate a large number of emotional states. It is particularly associated with fear and anger.
The amygdala is also thought to be involved in emotional and autobiographical memory. It has the task of identifying the emotional significance of an event and making the event better remembered.

The Mammillary Bodies

These structures relay information from the amygdala and hippocampus to the thalamus. Damage here can impair memory.

The Olfactory Bulb

This controls the body's sense of smell and sends its signals back to the temporal lobes. It is involved in odor detection and discriminating between different smells. This structure also plays a role in emotional memory as distinctive smells are often associated with the memory of an event.

Head Anatomy.........

HEAD, MRI Sagittal section. 1. Brain. 2. Corpus callosum (splenium). 3. Septum lucidum. 4. Thalamus. 5. Mamillary body. 6.Mesencephalon. 7. Pons. 8. Medulla oblongata. 9. Spinal cord. 10. Cerbellum. 11. Frontal sinus. 12. Ethmoid cells. 13. Concha. 14. Sphenoidal sinus. 15. Genioglossus muscle; tongue. 16. Mandible. 17. Rhinopharynx. 18. Oropharynx. 19. Laryngopharynx. 20. Trachea. 21. Soft palate. 22. Bone of the skull. 23. Internal cerebral vein; Great cerebral vein (called of Galien) and right sinus. 24. Forth ventricle. 25. Anterior arch of the Atlas. 26. Posterior arch of the Atlas. 27. Tooth of the axis (called ontoid process). 28. Optic chiasm. 29. Pituitary gland. 30. Clivus (called basilar cap splint)

Organization of the enteric component of the visceral motor system......

Central Nervous System....

Central Nervous System:

Brain 

I). Ventricles

1). Several large ‘spaces’ filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
2). Cerebrospinal Fluid forms a liquid cushion in and around the brain and spinal cord that is constantly drained and replaced.

II). Cerebral Hemispheres

A). 2 Lobes
B). The cerebrum divides into:

i). frontal
ii). parietal
iii). temporal
iv). occipital
v). insula: forms part of the floor

C). The sections form regions

1). Basal nuclei

	regulating attention
	starting, stopping and monitoring movements.
	inhibits movements

2). Cerebral White Matter:

	communication between:
	Cerebral cortex and the lower CNS
	hemispheres

3). Cerebral Cortex
    a).  Superficial layer
    b).  mind

	awareness of self
	communication
	memory
	understanding

   c).  Convolutions

	gyri
	sulci
	fissures

    d).  Cerebral Dominance

1). Left side has greater control but not exclusive control over language, math, and logic.
2). Right side has greater control visual-spatial skills, intuition, emotion, and artistic skills.

    e).  Motor & Sensory control

	motor areas
	sensory areas
	association areas

concerned with sensory input of the opposite side of the body
2 hemispheres are not equal in function
No functional area acts alone.

i). Functional Area:  Motor areas:

Found: posterior part of the Frontal Lobe

	Include voluntary movements, repetitious movements, motor speech and voluntary eye movements.
	Operates left to right: .

ii). Sensory Areas:

Found in the parietal, temporal, & occipital lobes.

Conscious awareness of sensation.

Sensory areas: 1). Spatial discrimination: Parietal lobe—

skeletal muscles and skin and identifies region being stimulated.

2). Somatosensory association: Parietal lobe--

object being felt to produce an understanding.

3). Visuals Areas: Occipital Lobe—

Information from the eyes. Information from the right eye is mapped in the left visual cortex and vice versa.

Also interprets visual stimuli using past visual experience

4). Auditory Areas: Temporal Lobe---

Information on pitch, rhythm, and loudness in interpreted and perceived as sound.

Memories of sound are stored for reference.

5). Olfactory Cortex: Frontal Lobe & Temporal--

olfactory signals and perceives smells.

6). Gustatory Cortex: Parietal Lobe

Taste

7). Vestibular Cortex: Insula & Temporal Lobe

" Equilibrium" Position of the head in space.

iii). Association Areas

Communicates between the primary sensory areas and the motor areas and other areas to:

	analyze
	recognize
	act

on input in reference to past experience.
1.) All of the sensory areas are connected to specific association areas
2.). Prefrontal Cortex: Anterior Frontal Lobes

	Intellect, complex learning, recall and personality,
	abstract ideas, reasoning, concern for others

3). Language Areas: Temporal Lobe

Language dominant side:

Non-language dominant side:

4). General Interpretation Area: Found in one hemisphere only

integrates all signals into a single thought or understanding.

5). Visceral Association Area: Insula

Conscious perception of sensations from the internal organs. (ie. full bladder)

 
III). Diencephalon

A). Thalamus

	Gateway to the cerebral cortex
	Impulses from all of the senses converge at a specific receptor and are edited or synchronized before traveling to the cortex.
	functions in motor activities, cortical arousal, learning & memory.

B). Hypothalamus

	Located below thalamus.
	Main visceral control center. Functions in:

1). Autonomic control center  
2). Center for emotional response:
3). Body thermostat  
4). Regulation of food intake  
5). Regulation of water balance  
6). Regulation of circadian rhythm  
7). Controls endocrine system  

C). Epithalamus

1). Pineal gland
2). Choroid plexus

IV). Brain Stem

Rigid, preprogrammed, automatic behaviors for survival. (primitive behaviors)

A). Midbrain

Under the diencephalon forming the cerebral peduncles.
Functions in:
1). Visual reflexes 
2). Auditory relay  
3). Startle reflex 
4). Releases dopamine.
5). Limb flexion.

B). Pons

Transmits nerves from the medulla oblongata and the cerebrum, and from the cerebrum to the cerebellum, and the peripheral nerves to higher functions.

C). Medulla Oblongata (m.o.)

Functions to:
1). Sends ascending impulses through the brain stem and to higher functions 
2). Controls heart rate.
3). Vasomotor control that contract blood vessels.
4). Respiratory center regulates rate and depth of breathing.

V). Reticular Formation (r.f.)

Network that is scattered through the brain stem connecting the brainstem, cerebellum and cerebrum with ascending and descending tracts.
 When sensory information reaches the r.f., it activates or arouses the cerebral cortex.
Decrease r.f. results in sleep.

	It filters sensory information.
	Inhibits some reflexes.
	Coordinates muscle activity

VI).  Cerebellum

A).  Anatomy

	Located posterior and inferior to the cerebrum under the occipital lobe.
	overlapping sensory maps of the body.
	All the fibers in and out control the same side of the body. (ipsilateral)
	no direct connection to the cerebral cortex

B).  Functions:
C).  Needs to:

	plan
	coordinate
	execute movement
	maintain balance

D).  Processes

1). Cerebral cortex sends message of intent to initiate voluntary muscle movement.
2). Receives information on body position and muscle tension and visual input.
3). Calculates best way to coordinate muscles
4). Cerebellum sends "blueprint" of movement to cerebral motor cortex.
5). Also sends stimulus to the midbrain and thus the spinal cord

VII). Limbic System

 Structures located throughout the cerebral hemisphere & diencephalon.
Function:

	Emotional feeling brain
	recognizes angry, fearful expressions and assesses danger &elicits fear response.
	Expresses emotions and resolves mental conflict.
	Connects with prefrontal lobe so there is a strong relationship between feelings and cognitive thought.
	Output relayed through the hypothalamus.

VIII). Protection of the Brain

A). Skull
B). Cerebral Spinal Fluid: Forms a cushion
C). Meninges

1). Consists of 3 connective tissue membranes external to the central nervous system.

2).  Layers of the Meninges

i) Dura Mater

	Tough meninx (meninges layer)
	2 layered fibrous connective tissue.

ii). Arachnoid Mater

Forms the subdural space under the dura mater.

iii). Pia Mater

Delicate connective tissue that clings to the brain.

IX). Blood-Brain Barrier

Capillaries in the brain are the least permeable in the entire body

(However in some areas it is very porous ie. hypothalamus)

Glucose, amino, acids, and electrolytes move freely however toxins, metabolic wastes etc. do not.
Fats and fat-soluble molecules move freely.

This includes various drugs & alcohol